Growth Of Vernacular Languages



Growth of Vernacular Languages, Scripts, Literature, Fine Arts

Having discussed the origin and early development of Indian vernacular language, it is imperative to turn our attention towards production of bulk-loads of literature in each of these vernaculars by eminent literary stalwarts of successive generations. Emanating eventually in the form of poetry, each vernacular has exhibited broadly two distinct themes: religious and secular. In the category of religious literature, major texts were either translated or adapted from classical texts of other languages, mostly Sanskrit, or were own original compositions in a particular vernacular. Early poetic compositions in almost all of the Indian vernaculars centered on religious and mystical themes. This was largely due to the casting influence of the medieval socio-religious reform movements. The Bhakti and Sufi movements had brought the whole of the Indian Subcontinent under their sway. The Bhakti and Sufi saints lived and worked in the midst of the common people. They needed to reach out to them (common people) in order to spread their socio-religious and philosophical messages. They, therefore, chose local vernaculars for their speech and writings for the maximum impact. Such spirited enterprises gave tremendous boost to the growth of vernacular literature of India. The secular poetic compositions also show two broad trends: first, poetic compositions dealing with grammar or literary styles, and second, translations/original writings on scientific and mathematical themes.

The medieval literature of Indian vernacular also received strong impetus from court-patronages. Eminent poets and writers were promoted by various royal courts through generous gifts and grants. Telugu, for instance, received tremendous support from Krishna Deva Raya(the Vijayanagar ruler),whose court was adorned by the ‘Ashta-diggaja’, or eight great learned men of Telugu. Other vernaculars of India also received similar royal support.

In its modern form, various forms of prose writings viz.,-long essays, novels, short-stories, playwright, newspapers, periodicals and journals etc. have developed as specialized form of literary works in almost all major vernaculars of India. Poetry is still an important area of literary works. Themes, metres and tone and tenor of poems have assumed the character of the modern age poetry Whether prose or poetry, vernacular writings in India have significantly been influenced by modern course of Indian historical developments. Thus, the advent of the European trading companies in general and the British East India Company in particular, activities of various Christian missionaries in various parts of the country, the course of freedom movement, emergence of modern socio-religious intelligentsia etc., have tremendously influenced and contributed to the multifarious growth of Indian vernaculars.

Let us make a survey of each of the major Indian vernaculars.

1. Pali

Originally, it meant ‘a series, or a line’. Later, it came to indicate the sacred words of the Buddha, as also the texts which embodied the Buddhist teachings. It signifies the language of the Buddhist texts. Needless to say, therefore, Pali literature multiplied mostly around the conduct and teachings of the Sthaviravadin Buddhism.

As it stands today, it includes the scriptures, commentaries and semi-canonical texts. It consists of three sections called Pitakas (baskets): the Vinaya (“conduct”), the Sutta (“Sermon”) and the Abhidhamna (“Metaphysics”).

The Vinayapitaka contains the Buddha’s pronouncements, spelling out rules for the conduct of the monastic order. With each such rule, the circumstances, which led the Buddha to pronounce it, is also given. The Sutta Pitaka is the largest and the most important of these Pitakas. It has five Nikayas (Chapters).

(i) Digha (Long) Nikaya, a collection of long sermons ascribed to the Buddha.

(ii) Majjhime (Medium) Nikaya, shorter sermons are placed in this group.

(iii) Samyukta (Connected) Nikaya, collections of brief pronouncements on kindred topics.

(iv) Anguttara (Graduated) Nikaya, a collection of over 2000 brief statements arranged in eleven sections on the basis of the graduated numbers of topics treated in these.

(v) Khuddaka (Minor) Nikaya, miscellaneous works in prose and verse viz., the Dhammapada (“Verses on Virtue”), the Theragatha and the Therigatha (“Hymns of the Elder Monks and Nuns”) and the Jatakas, a collection of over 500 poems briefly outlining folk-tales and other stories to be told in the words of a narrator etc..

The third Pitaka consists of a number of works on Buddhist psychology and metaphysics. The most important of these books is the Kathavatthu, ascribed to Tissa Mogaliputta (the Buddhist monk who presided the third Buddhist council at Pataliputra). In the category of the semi-canonical works, some of the major Pali works are the “Questions of Menander” (Milinda – Panha), an account of the discussions of the Greeco-Bactrian king Menander and the monk Nagasena; verse chronicles like the Dipavamsa (“the Island Chronicle”), the Mahavamsa (“Great Chronicle”) and the culavamsa (“Lesser Chronicle”). These chronicles not only portray the history of Buddhism in Ceylon, but also give valuable information on political and social history.

2. Prakrit

From the earliest times down to the 1^st century A.D., inscriptions were composed exclusively in Prakrit. The foremost among these are the Asokan inscriptions.Later on, many significant literary texts were written in this language.

Jaina canonical works occupy a very important place in Prakrit literature. The first attempts to systematize the preachings of Mahavir were made in Patalipurtra council in the 4^th century B.C.; but they were finally rearranged, redacted and committed to writing in the vallabhi council in the 5^th century A.D. The canonical texts were composed in the Ardhamagadhi speech. Some of the important Jaina texts are the Acaranga sutra, which deals with monastic codes, Nayadhammakaha, collection of Mahavir’s teachings, Bhagavatisutra, which sheds some light on Mahavir’s life…, and the list goes upto twelve such texts called Angas. Each Anga has an Upanga. Later on, many commentaries were also written on these Angas and Upangas.

A number of other important works were also written in Prakrit. Thus Setubandha of Pravarasena, describing Rama’s Ceylonese expedition, is an important poem in Prakrit. Similarly, Gauda-Vaho of the 8^th century poet Vakpati, is another important Prakrit text which describes the exploits of Yashovardhan, the king of Kanyakubja .Certain dramas, technically called Sattakas, were exclusively composed in this language. The Karpuramanjari (c. A.D. 900) of Rajasekhara is the most important work of this type. Anthologies of detached stanzas on love and maxims are found abundantly in this literature. The Gathasaptasati of the Satavahana king Hala,which comprises about 700 stanzas about love depicting the varied phases of south Indian rural life. Narrative literature such as theBrihatkatha of Gunadhya, are also fairly extensive in Prakrit. Among the scientific works, lexicographical works such as the Paiyalacchinamamala (A.D. 972-73) by Dhanapada and the Desinamamala by Hemachandra, are important Prakrit literary works.

3. Apbhransha

We have noted that the traces of this speech began to appear from the beginning of the Christian era. From the tenth century onwards, Jaina monks and Buddhist writers began to utilize this medium for their literary expressions. The metre Doha, peculiar to this language was adopted as a powerful form of expression of religious and philosophical thoughts. Literary works like the Paramatmaprakasha and the Yogasara by Joindu, the Pahudadoha by Ramosimha (10^th c. A.D.) and the Vairagyasara by Subhacharya are some of the important Jain texts in Apbhransha .Stray poems dealing with morals, maxims, ethics, religion, discourses and legends are very commonly found in this language. The Kirtilata of Vidyapati (14^th c. A.D.) is a major literary work in Apbhransha.

4. Modern Indo-Aryan Vernacular Literature

i. Assamese

The earliest traces of Assamese are found in the writings of the Siddha cult of Buddhism during the eighth century A.D. However, Assamese became a vehicle of literary expression only from the twelfth century A.D. The first major writings were confined to the genre of rendering translations of popular Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Bhagavat Gita or particular episodes therefrom, into Assamese. Hema Saraswati’s Prahladcharita and Hara-Gauri Samvada, Harihara Vipra’s Babruvahanar Yudha and Lava Kusas Yudha were some of the major works in this genre. Madhava Kandli and Kaviratha Sarasvati were other prominent literary persons of this era. Later on too, such religions works continued to be composed or translated from the Sanskrit original into Assamese. Kaviraja Chakravarti’s Brahmavaivarta Purbha (c. 17^th c.A.D.), is a major example of this persuit. The Vishnu Purana, the Bhagavat Purana and the Harivamsa were translated by GopalChandra Dwija (c. 17^th c. A.D.) whereas Bhattadeva translated the Bhagavat Gita.

Some of the non-religious works were also translated into Assamese. These included poetical romances, like the Mrigavati Charita, Madhava- Sulochana and Sakuntala Kavya. Besides, many Sanskrit works on medicine, astronomy, arithmetic, grammar, architecture etc. were also translated.

The whole of Assam passed under the sway of the strong Vaishnava movement during the fifteenth and sixteenth century A.D. Sankaradeva (1459-1569) and Madhavadeva (489-1596) were the key architects of the Assamese Vaishnava movement. They made rich contributions to the development of the Assamese literature.The Kirtana-Ghosha Ghosha of Sankaradeva is known as the Bible of the Assamese Vaishnava literature. It is an anthology of devotional songs. Madhavadeva’s Rajasuya depicted organization of this sacrifice by the Pandavas (an episode from the Mahabharata).

A notable feature of Assamese poetry of this era was the emergence of a new form of poetry called theCharitaputhis particularly from the second half of the sixteenth century.  The Katha-Guru Charita, the biography of Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva, compiled in the second half of the seventeenth century is a monumental work in this genre.

The Assamese prose began to develop from the sixteenth century A.D. Sankaradeva was also a playwright, an actor and a musician of repute besides being a poet. He composed a number of one act plays interspersed with songs. These are known as Ankiya nats in Assam. Bhattadeva (1558-1638) translated the Bhagavat Gita in prose. TheBuranjis, the Chronicles of the Ahom court emerged as the highly developed form of prose literature containing periodical reports, judicial and revenue records, diplomatic correspondence etc.

Apart from the strong Vaishnava movement, court patronages, extended to prominent literary personalities of this era, was another important factor which provided a great impetus to the proliferation of the Assamese literature. The famous Hema Sarasvati lived in the court of Durlabh Narayana, a king in western Assam around the beginning of the thirteenth century. Madhava Kandali was patronized by Mahamanikya, the king of Chachar. The Ahom Kings also extended patronage to eminent Assamese poets and writers between the sixteenth and eighteenth century A.D.

The Modern Age of Assamese literature set in with the British occupation of Assam in the nineteenth century. Subsequent to it, a large number of American Baptist missionaries, such as Rev. N. Brown, 0.T. cotter, M. Bronson, W.M. Ward etc., came and settled in Assam. In order to spread the message of the Christ, they learnt the local vernacular and began large scale publication works in Assamese. The Arunodaya, a monthly periodical was started by them in 1846. Works on Assamese grammar, dictionaries, journals were published in large numbers. Hemachandra Barua’s Hemakosha, an important Anglo-Assamese dictionary was published during this period. Jonaki, an Assamese journal was started in 1889 by a group of Assamese in Calcutta.

The last hundred years have been an era of unequalled enthusiasm for Assamese literature. The old nataka form has been replaced by new type of drama. Similarly, the old Kavya form has started giving way to the new age poetry of the English romantic type. Rajani. Bardoli (novelist), B.K. Kakati (essay writer), L.N. Benzbarua and Hema Gosain (new age poets), Hemchandra and Gunabhirain Barua (playwright) have been contributing tremendously in their respective areas of literature and the process continues unabated.

ii. Bengali

Bengali literature traces its origin to some Charyapadas (folk songs), written between the tenth and twelfth century A.D., by the followers of the Sahaja cult of Buddhism. It was followed by the blossoming of the medieval phase of Bengali literature between the fourteenth and the eighteenth century. This phase exhibited three major trends: (1) Vaishnava poetry (2) translations and adaptations from classical Sanskrit texts and (3) Mangala Kavya. The eighteenth century, from this perspective, is viewed as a period of decadence as the literature of this period lacked freshness and vigor. The British occupation of Bengal, establishment of

British administration, introduction of English education and its impact on the receptive Bengali mind and activities of Christian missionaries in Bengal etc., were some of the important factors which heralded the advent of the modern age in the realm of Bengali literature, manifesting in the form of new age poetry, plays, novels, short-stories, journals, periodicals etc.

Chandidasa (15^th. A.D.) was the first of the Vaishnava poets of Bengal. His numerous devotional lyrics tremendously influenced the next generation of Bengali bhakta-poets and their literary compositions. Similar influence was commanded by Vidyapati. Although, his own language was Maithili, yet his poems were mostly observed into Bengali. The central figure of the Bengali Vaishnava movement and the architect of medieval Bengali literature was Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533). He composed numerous bhajanas which along with his life and activities became the focal point of Bengali Vaishnava literature during the succeeding centuries. A host of Vaishnava poets, such as Murarigupta, Narahari Sarkar, Ramananda Basu, Shekhara etc., wrote excellent poetry. A number of biographical texts were written, of which Krishnadasa Kaviraja’s Chaitanyamritam is regarded a monumental work.

Many Sanskrit texts were translated or adapted in Bengali. Kirtivasa Ojha rendered Bengali translation of theRamayana. Similarly, Kashiram translated the Mahabharata. Maladhar Basu Gunaraja Khan wrote the famousSrikrishnavijaya, which is essentially a Bengali adaptation of the Bhagavata Purana.

The Mangal Kavya was a peculiar poetic form of medieval Bengal, deeply rooted to the life of the common mass. These narratives were produced in sizeable quantity. Manikdaya and Mukundaram were some of the leading exponent of this genre of Bengali literature.

The modern Bengali literature has been developing both in terms of quantity and variety of literary forms. The latter has multiplied in the form of new age poetry and prose. The prose form has further proliferated in newer forms like drama, fiction (novel), newspapers, periodicals & journals etc. Michael Madhusudan Das (1824-1873) was a notable poet of this age, whose magnum opus Meghanadavadha is reflective of the new age poetry. The earliest Bengali prose works were written by a Baptist missionary William Carey (1761-1834) and some of his contemporaries like Ramram Basu, and Mrityunjaya Vidyalankara. The Baptist missionary of Serampore started the first Bengali newspaper, a weekly named Samachara Darpana, in A.D 1818. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a leading literary luminary of this era whose Vedantagrantha written in A.D 1815 ,is perhaps the most lucid work of the early Bengali prose. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, through his prose writings, contributed so much to this literature that he is regarded as the ‘father of the literary prose in Bengali.’

In the last hundred years, the modern Bengali literature has been taken to newer heights in all of its literary forms. This age has produced great names in the field of literature. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838-1894), wrote masterpieces such as the Anandmath, Devi Chaudhrani etc. and emerged as one of the best writers of modern Bengali fiction. Rabindranath Tagore’s (1861-1941) poems and writings such as Gitanjali, Gora, Ghore-Baire etc. have accorded unprecedented height to it. Swarnakumari Devi (1855-1932), a daughter of Debendranath Tagore, by virtue of her writings, emerged as the first notable woman writer in Bengali. Sarat Chandra Chatterjee (1876-1938) emerged as one of the greatest Bengali novelists whose Devdas and Parineeta are still counted amongst the best of the Bengali novels. The list of such literary giants and the pace of development of modern Bengali literature both, are growing in leaps and bound in the present times.

iii. Gujarati

The beginning of Gujarati literature is also traced to conventional folk songs of the region. The first phase in the development of Gujarati literature from the 12^th to the mid 14^th century, is characterized by two main literary forms, viz., the Prabhandha or the narrative poem and the Muktaka or the shorter poem. The period between the 16^th and 18^th century may be assumed as the second phase in the development of this literature. As in other places of India and with other vernaculars, decadence also set in the life and literature of Gujarat during the first half of the 18^th century. From the 19^th century onwards, Gujarati literature entered its modern era, developing and perfecting various literary genres, such as new age poetry, drama, novel, short stories, essays etc.

The first literary work distinctly in Gujarati was Bharatesvarabahubali rasa of Salibhadra. Soon, it developed thePrabhandha and Muktaka genres of poetry. Many heroic and poetic romances and Rasas, or long poems were composed in the prabandha style. The Kanhada-de-prabandha of Padmanabha (c. A.D. 1456), narrates Gujarat’s heroic stand against the Muslim invaders and the fall of Somnath. In these poems romantic fiction is interspersed with historical facts. The Sadayavatsa Katha of Bhima (c. A.D. 1410) falls in the category of poetical romance, which is a pure fiction, based on popular legends, with exaggerated descriptions of love and adventure. The Revantagiri rasa of Vijayasena is a specimen of the rasa literature. Such works are more true to contemporary life in spite of their mythical character.

The Muktaka literature also registered steady growth. It developed a peculiar form, namely, the Phagu, which meant a short poem with separation (Viraha) as its main theme. The Phagu composers such as, Rajashekhara, Jayashekhara and Somashekhara dealt, for example, with the most popular theme of that era in their respective Phagus, i.e., the tragic love of Rajala for Neminatha.

From the 16^th century onwards,Gujarat began to be swept across by powerful currents of Vaishnava Bhakti movements. The major strain in the literature of this period is religious and mystical. Some of the major poets of this era were Narasimha Mehta (c.1500-1580.), and Bhalana (c.1426-1500). Narasimha Mehta, on account of the richness of his imagination and the variety of his creative activity, is considered as the father of Gujarati poetry. Bhalana and Akho also made rich contributions to this literature with their distinct styles of poetry. Premananda Bhatta, who may be described as the greatest poet of Gujarat of all times, actually came much later, i.e., the second half of the 17^thcentury A.D. About fifty-seven works, covering an enormous variety of literary themes and forms, are ascribed to him.

The modern period in Gujarati literature begins from the 19^th century. In poetry, works of eminent poets like Dalpatram Dahyabhai (c.1820-1898), Narsinhrao, B.Divetiyas (c.1859-1937), Manishankar Kant, Nanalal, Balvantrai etc., heralded the onset of the modern period. Narsinhrao’s Kusumamala (1887) introduced the western lyric as the principal form of poetic expressions in Gujarati. The Persian Ghazal began to be used extensively along with folk songs. Nanalal composed exquisite folk songs and is regarded as the greatest lyric poets of modern Gujarati. A new trend set in by 1930, when a new generation of poets under the influence of Gandhism began to compose poems and songs with national liberation as the central theme.

The modern Gujarati prose also developed on similar lines. Govardhanran Tripathi’s(C.1855-1907), four-deckerSarasvatichandra has the quest for the national self as its central theme. Ramanlal Desai’s Divyachaksu vividly portrays the picture of the Civil Disobedience Movement. K.M. Munshi (1888-1971) enlarged the scope of fiction writing through his historical novels. Pannalal Patel excelled in the regional novel. Even, Mahatama Gandhi made immense contributions to the modern Gujarati prose through his writings. Besides, a vast number of articles and notes, he wrote Hind Swaraj, Atmakatha, Dakshina Africana Satyagrahno Itihasa, Arogyani Chawi etc.

Modern Gujarati literature has also made forays into the genres of short story and playwright. Gaurishankar Govardhanram Joshi is regarded as a master short-story teller. His Dhumketu reflects his command over this art. Ramnarayan Pathak is another master of the Gujarati short story. Similarly, emulation of western playwrights began as early as the eighteen-fifties. Ramanbhai, K.M. Munshi, Chandravadan Mehta and Yashwant Mehta are some big names in this genre of writing. Ramanbhai’s Rai no Parvat is considered to be the best dramatic work in this language.

iv. Oriya

The earliest traces of Oriya writings appear in the 13^th century onwards in the form of short lyrics and satirical poems. The Oriya literature first assumed a proper shape and a definite character through the compositions of the great poet Saraladasa, who wrote the Oriya Mahabharata in the 14^th century A.D., and the literary works of the five associates (Pancha Sakha) of which Balaramadasa and Jagannathadasa, were the most important literary figures.

The period between the 16^th and 18^th centuries A.D. is regarded as the medieval phase of the Oriya literature. Normally, two trends are visible in this period: (i) court poetry with emphasis on ornament and intellectual fancy, and (ii) Vaishnava poetry which laid strong emphasis upon love. However, these two trends were quite often mixed up: the court poets adopted Vaishnava themes and the Vaishnavas indulged in the literary sports of the court poets. Upendra Bhanja (1670-1720) was the most important poet of the first category, whose compositions made invaluable contributions towards the development of Oriya poetry. The Vaishnava poets of Orissa were under tremendous influence of the Bhakti movement of Sri Chaitanya. This group was represented by composers like Dinakrishnadasa, Abhimanyu Samanta Simhara and Kavisurya Baladeva. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and theBhagavata-Gita were the invariable sources of material. The Bidagdha Chintamani of Abhimanyu Samanta Simhara, is a leading example of the writings of this group.

The modern age set in Oriya literature in the middle of the 19^th century. The contact with the west through English education brought about a radical change in Oriya literature. Prose literature began to develop sinceforth in various forms, such as, novels, dramas, short stories, journals etc. The modern Oriya literature also came under the influence of the nationalist movement for freedom and Gandhism.

Radhanath Ray (1849-1908), regarded as the father of Oriya poetry, Madhusudan Rao (1853-1912 ), Fakir Mohan Senapati (1843-1918 ) etc., have heralded the pace of the onset of the modern era in Oriya literature. Radhanath Ray’s compositions exhibit influence of western ideas. Senapati, who developed Oriya prose, portrayed in his compositions, grassroots accounts of rural life.

Some literary groups, organizations and their activities are also contributng to the development of modern Oriya literature. The Utkal union conference of 1903, founded by Madhusudan Das and the Satyavadi group of writers, a product of the nationalist movement of the early 20^th century etc, were some of such groups/organizations. The Prachi Samiti, worked in the field of research and brought to light a number of ancient works. Vishwanatha Kara and Nilamani Vidyaratna started their magazines in Oriya. Gopala Chandra Praharaja produced a monumental Bhasa Kosha, a multi-lingual dictionary. This multifaceted growth of modern Oriya literature continues unabated.

v. Marathi

Ever since its emergence in the latter half of the 13^th century A.D., the Marathi literature betrayed profound religious and philosophical fervor, which continued till the end of the 17^th century A.D. From the 17^thcentury, however, we begin to find secular compositions. Such works found expressions in the Povadas, a poetic genre, a kind of ballad describing the lightning warfare and selfless valor of the Marathas, and also Lavanis, another poetic genre, romantic in character with a deeper appeal to the erotic sentiments. Another genre of writing developed and dominated the Marathi literature from the mid 18^th century was Bakhars or chronicles of historical events. The beginning of the 19^th century witnessed the advent of modern age in this literature as well. Biographies (both in prose and verse), works on Marathi grammar, dictionaries, newspapers, periodicals, essays, historical novels, dramas and satirical writings, etc., began to be produced on a large scale, besides the continued swarming of new age poetry.

The first three hundreds years of the Marathi literature was dominated by religious and philosophical themes. Mukundaraja was a very important poet of this age who wrote primarily for the masses in chaste popular language. His Vivek-Sindhu is one of the finest specimen of the early Marathi literature. The poet- saints of the Mahanubhava cult, by virtue of their marked contribution to Marathi poetry and prose, are regarded as the builders of early Marathi literature.These poet -saints composed seven long poems. They also produced sizeable prose literature- mainly biographical or philosophical in character. Some of the important prose works are the Lila Charita, the biography of the founder saint of this cult Chakradhara ,the Govinda Prabhu Charita, the biography of Govinda Prabhu, the preceptor of Chakradhara, and the Siddhanta Sutra Patha, which contains sermons regarding day to day life.

The next stage of Marathi literature witnessed towering personalities, such as Jnanadeva, Namdev, Eknatha and Tukarama etc. Jnanadeva’s literary skills and philosophical depth are aptly reflected in his Bhavartha-Dipika,popularly known as Jnaneshvari, and the Amritanubhava. The poetic compositions of other saints Eknath and Tukarama reached to common people in their own language and left deep imprint onto their thoughts and minds. Tukaram is particularly known for his Abhanga or short lyrical poems, which made direct appeal to the people through the intensity of their lyrical quality. Ramdas Samrath, the great saint preceptor of Shivaji, was another literary Stalwart of this age. His Dasabodha, reflected a combination of devotional and religious fervor and liberation and national reconstruction. The last great poet of this age was Vamana Pandita, who composed poetry in an ornate Sanskritized style.

The latter half of the 19^th century A.D., witnessed beginning of the new age Marathi poetry. K.K. Damle (also known as Keshavasuta) created new norms in the poetry of love, nature,social consciousness and neo-mysticism. By 1930, a group of poets known as the Ravi Kirana Mandal popularized many traditions of simple Marathi poetry. Madhav Tryambak Patvardhan and Yashvant Dinkar Pendharkar were the lead composers of this group. The earlier Povadasand Lovanis, however, continued alongside. The former harped on the Maratha glory of the Peshwa courts and the latter continued to pick up love themes.

New age Marathi prose also registered a steady progress. The first Marathi grammar and dictionary appeared in 1829. A host of thinkers and social reformers made direct contributions to the new age Marathi prose. Bal Shastri Jambekar (1810-46) started a daily paper, Darpana in 1831 and the periodical Digdarsana in 1841. Vishnu Shastri Chipulkar (1850-82) founded the newspaper Kesari in 1881, which under Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak assumed an all India status. Gopal Hari Deshmukh allies Lokahitawadi (1823-1892 ), Gopal Agarkar (1856-1895 ),

Jyotibha Pule (1827-90), Lokamanya Tilak (1856-1920). S.M. Paranjape (1864-1929 ), N.C. Kelkar (1872-1947), V.D. Savarkar (1883-1966 ) etc., gave vent to their thought through their writings on a wide variety of issues ranging from social, philosophical, mystical to political and national.

Marathi novels also multiplied during this age. Hari Narayan Apte (1864-1919 ) was a great novelist whose Ushakalaand Mi portrayed all aspects of life in the contemporary Maharashtra and are counted amongst the finest specimen of Marathi Novels. A new trend in satirical and humerous writings also developed around this time. S.K. Kolhatkar, Ram Ganesh Gadkari and C.V. Joshi are some of the great names in this field.

The Progression of Marathi drama enlisted invaluable contributions from Vinayak Rao Irtane (1840-91), Anna Saheb Kirloskar and others. Anna Saheb’s plays Sakuntala (1880), Saubhadra (1882 ), and Ramarajya-Viyoga (1884 ) mark high water mark of Marathi plays.

vi. Punjabi

The first phase of Punjabi literature [between A.D.1200-1500] was dominated by poetic works on religious mysticism, heroic ballads and folk literature. Gradually, there emerged poetical romances, adopting popular love stories of a legendary character, Indian as well as Persian .During the second phase [the 16-18^th century] good progress was registered in Punjabi prose. This phase also witnessed a number of religious and philosophical works translated from Sanskrit. The modern era in Punjabi literature set in the 19^th century A.D. The establishment of the Christian missionary at Ludhiana which set up the first printing press in the Punjab was one of the pivotal factors responsible for this transition. Subsequently, the tone and tenor of this literature modulated itself in accordance to some of the important events taking place in the contemporary Punjab, viz., the Ghadar, Akali and communist movements. In the Post-independence era, institutions like Punjabi Sahitya Academy (Ludiana), Kendriya Punjabi Lekhaka Sabha (Jullundhur), and Punjabi University etc., are playing a very important role in the promotion of Punjabi literature.

Masud Farid-uddin (1173-1265) a mystic poet of high order was the pioneer of early Punjabi mystic poetry, followed by a number of such Hindu and Muslim poets. Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was another important luminary who composed verses and songs in large number preaching castelessness, and advocating a Universal, ethical, anti-ritualistic, monotheistic and highly spiritual religion.

Guru Angad (1539-1552), the immediate successor of Nanak, collected Nanak’s oral teachings and put them down in a new script, the Gurumukhi. Another Sikh Guru, Arjun (581-1606) brought together the Vanis (words) of previous Sikh Gurus and those of other saints like Kabir, Namadeva and Raidas to form the Guru Grantha Sahib. His own monumental work Sukhamani is one of the longest and greatest medieval mystic poems. The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh surpassed all the Punjabi poets of his age in volume and variety. A number of poetic romances were also written. Hir Ranjha, written by Waris Shah is probably the best of these poetics. The earliest specimen of Punjabi prose appeared in the form of Janam Sakhis (biographies of Gurus), Bachans (sayings) and Parmaraths(commentaries on scriptures).

Modern Punjabi literature began to develop in the 19^th century A.D. The first Punjabi newspaper was started by the Christian Mission at Ludhiana. Rev. J. Newton wrote the first Punjabi grammar text .Two of the earliest dictionaries were published in 1838 and 1854 respectively. The birth of the Singh Sabha movement rendered further impetus to the development of this literature. Bhai Vir Singh (1872-1957 ) wrote a number of novels such as Sundari, Vijay Singh and Baba Naudh Singh. He also composed long poems such as, Rana Surat Singh. Other notable contemporary poets were Puran Singh (1882-1932) and Dhani Ram Chalrik (1876-1954).

Events, such as the Ghadar, and emergence of Akalis and Communists in the Punjab, shifted the focus of this literature from mystical and religious to national and the political themes. Mohan Singh, Amrita Pritam, Santokh Singh, Takht Singh etc.,were some of the important composers of modern progressive poetry.

Punjabi drama also reached unprecedented scale of development during this phase. A host of playwrights have appeared on the scene such as I.C. Nanda, Sekhon, Balwant Gargi and others. Thier dramas exhibit higher standard of excellence. Punjabi novels have greatly been contributed by some of the leading novelists, such as, Nanak Singh, Amrita Pritam, Narindarpal Singh, Surindar Singh Narula etc. Another set of leading literary figures such as Sant Singh Sekhon and Kulwant Singh Virk have infused a new lease of life to short story writings.

Publication of magazines, such as, Preet ladi and literary journals, e.g., the Panja Darya, Punjabi Dunia, Arsi, Alochna, Sahitya Samachara etc. ,has been making rich contributions to the modern Punjabi literature.

vii. Sindhi

Sindhi literature made a humble beginning in the 14^th century A.D. The early Sindhi poetry, like those of other contemporary vernacular, was dominated by religious and mystical themes. From the 18^th century, under the influence of Persian poetry, the theme of Sindhi poetry began to shift towards romanticism. The British conquest of Sindh in 1843 proved to be a blessing in disguise from the perspective of development of this literature. Sindhi had no fixed script before the middle of the 19^th century. After the British conquest, it was decided to employ Arabic characters for Sindhi and an alphabet of 52 letters was adopted to form the standard script. Subsequently, Sindhi literature entered its modern phase. Dramas, novels, Short stories, essays, literary criticism etc., have all ever since been registering a speedy progress. Institutions like the Sindhi Sahitya Society (established in 1914), have greatly been contributing to the enrichment of Sindhi literature.

The early phase of Sindhi literature was dominated by the well-known trinity of Sindhi poets-Shah Abdul Latif (1689-1752 ), Abdul Wahab, better known as Sachal (1739-1850) and Bhai Chainrai (1743-1850). These poets were clearly under the influence of the Sufi mysticism. Shah Abdul Latif’s subtle Sufi thoughts, characterization, graphic description of scenes and beauty of his compositions have earned him the epithet of the greatest Sindhi poet. Sachal is said to have composed over one lakh verse in Sindhi. Sami was the first known Hindu Vedantic poet who composed more than 15,000 verses in the form of Slokas.

Although, Sindhi poetry started with its principal form Dohas and Sarathas etc., the 18^th century witnessed introduction of the Persian poetry forms viz., Ghazal, Qasida, mathnawi etc. Some of the prominent composers in this genre were Muhammad Gul, Mulla Muhammad Qasim, Shams-Ud-Din Bulbul etc. Satirical poetry and those based on Sindhi folk- tales also made great headway during this period.

Sindhi prose is comparatively of recent origin. The British conquest of Sindh facilitated large scale translation and publication of books on Christianity. The earliest prose writing appeared, however, in the form of the Sindhi translation of the Quran Sharif by Azizullah in 1746. The British impetus to Sindhi literature came in the form of publication of not less than 15 books, including 4 grammars and 5 dictionaries, before the end of the 19^th century A.D. This was followed by publication of several dictionaries and grammars, viz. English-Sindhi Dictionary by Lakshmana-Vishnu Paranjapaye (1868), Sindhi-English (1910) and English-Sindhi (1933) dictionaries by Parmanand Mewaram etc. Gradually books on folk tales of Sindh, art, science, biology, history, geography etc., also began to be published.

Sindhi playwright witnessed a large number of translations as well as writing of original dramas. Mirza Qalich Beg translated most of the Shakespearean dramas, whereas he wrote original ones like Laila Majnu (1880), Khurshed (1887) and Shakuntala. King Harsha’s Sanskrit drama Ratnavali was also translated in Sindhi in 1888 European dramatists, such as Ibsen, Sheridan etc., were also introduced to the Sindhi literature. Khanchand Daryani , a leading Sindhi dramatist, wrote a large number of original dramas – the popular among them being Gulab-jo-gul (1920 ), Zamindari Zulum (1928), Ratna (1924), Zamane ji Lahar (1929) etc.

Sindhi novel too, has a humble beginning. Jagat Advani was the first prominent Sindhi novelist.His focus, however, was to translate novels from other languages. He translated in Sindhi, works of novelists, such as Sharat Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, Munshi Prem Chand etc. Gradually, original novels also began to appear. Mirza Qalich Beg wrote Dilaram (1888) and Zeenat (1890). Some historical novels were also written, such as Dr. Gurubkhani’s Nur Jahan (1915) and Abdul Razzak’s Jahan Ara (1935).

Sindhi short story began with religious themes and with emphasis on moral values. Soon, however, these began to be written on social and historical themes. Bherumal’s Prem-Jo-Mohatam (1914) throws light on family life. Nirmaldas Fatehchand’s Sarojini harps on Hindu-Muslim unity. Amarlal Hingorani, Usman Ali Ansari and Nanikran Mirchandani are some of the other important names in this field.

Similarly, a number of essays have been written by essayists, such as Mirza Qalich Beg, Sadhu Hiranand, Permanand Mewaram, Lalchand etc., on religious, philosophical, literary, patriotic, Sufi and social subjects.

Literary criticism is the product of the late 19^th century. Fazil Shah, Hotchand Gurbukhani, Bherumal etc.,are some of the leading contributors to this branch of Sindhi prose.

viii. Hindi

The origin of Hindi literature is usually traced in the writings of the Nathapanthis between the tenth and eleventh century A.D. The writings of this period, however, remained poor in literary value. The first phase of the development of Hindi literature, namely, the Adi Kala, began from the 11^th century, with Rajasthan being the main centre of literary production. The bulk of literature produced during this period belonged to two prominent categories, viz., one, composed in ballad form and meant for group singing accompanied by dance (Raso) and the other, written in a more literary style, using different meteres and propagating a well knit story of hero’s romantic and warlike pursuits (Rasa). The second phase (1318-1643), namely the Bhaktikala, witnessed wholesome composition of Hindi verses on religious, moral and mystical themes on the lines of two dominant schools of Bhakti saints, viz., the Nirguna and Shaguna schools.

The period between1650-1850 is regarded as the third major period in the development of Hindi literature. The poets of this age belonged to the elite class and were academicians by profession who not only practiced but also theorized on poetry. The main theme of Ritikala poetry was carnal love. The fourth period, namely, The Adhunik Kala, began with Bharatendu Harish Chandra (1846-1884 A.D.), who is known as the ‘Father of modern Hindi literature.’ The early years of modern Hindi poetry was dominated by themes on contemporary social, political and economic problems with a note on national regeneration. As a reaction to this overemphasis on moral aspects of human life, the modern Hindi poetry entered its next phase known as the Chyavada, wherein natural human impulses became core of poetry. This trend continued till 1937. The contemporary Hindi poetry comes under the influence of the Leftist ideology which found expression in two rival trends: one is Progressivism (Pragativada), which can be defined as people’s poetry directly inspired by the Marxian philosophy; the other is called experimentalism (Prayogavada) or new literature, which looks upon experiments or constant quest as the essence of life and literature.

The modern Hindi prose also began to assume concrete shape from 1850 onwards. Dramas, novels, short stories, newspapers, periodicals, literary criticism etc. – all such variants of prose have established their independent and distinct identities in the realm of the modern Hindi literature.

In the Rasa category of the Adikala literature, Narapati Nalha’s classical poem the Bisaldev Raso is a commendable work. It was written in the latter half of the 12^th century A.D. Its language is very close to Rajasthani Dingal and the theme deals with the grief of a woman whose lover deserted her in anger. The greatest work in tradition of the Raso literature is the Pritviraj raso, ascribed to Chand Bardai, a bardic poet of the court of Prithvi Raj Chauhan of Delhi and Ajmer. It is regarded as the first epic poem in Hindi on account of its literary merit.

The Hindi literature during the Bhakti Kala had saint poets of both Nirguna and Shaguna schools and Sufi mystics. They composed their verses on religious, mystical and social themes. Kabir (1398-1518) composed a number of songs and Verses (Sakhis), which are noted for their literary excellence. On the mystic plane, Kabir’s compositions assume a modest and devotional tone. On the social plane, Kabir is out spoken. He severely strikes against all social and religious abuses which had crept into the contemporary Islam and Hinduism. He was followed by other saint poets of the Nirguna school viz., Dharmadasa, Guru Nanak, Dadu, Sundardasa etc. The Shaguna compositions had two broad divisions: notes of devotion to Rama and Krishna. The Rama worshiping Shaguna group was led by Tulsidasa (1532-1563), whose Ramacharita Manasa is an epitome of the medieval Hindu culture. Of the Krishna worshipping Shaguna group, Surdasa (1483-1563) was the most prominent saint poet, whose Sura-Sagra is one of the masterpieces of medieval Hindi literature. Vidyapati, Nandadasa, Hita Harivansa, Mirabai and Rasakhana etc., were some of the other prominent saint poets of this school, whose poetic compositions also made rich contributions to the contemporary Hindi literature. The Sufi-mystics, on the other hand, under the influence of Persian style of poetry, wrote poetical romances based on common love tales of the Hindu and Muslim life. Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat (1540), Kutuban’s Mrigavati (1501), Manjhan’s Madhumalti, Uthman’s Chitravali (1613) and Nur Muhammad’s Indravati etc., are invaluable compositions of this category of medieval Hindi literature. Another great literary personality of the period was Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana, who adored the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar. This statesman- poet composed poems on moral values and virtues.

The first noted poet of Ritikala was Kesavadasa, who was followed by others like Chintamani, Mati Rama (1617-1716), Bihari (1603-1663), and Deva (1673-1767) Another great poet Bhushana, belonged to this group, although, the theme of his compositions, invariably, was heroic struggles of Shivaji against the Mughals.

Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s compositions initiated the modern age in Hindi poetry. This process was subsequently continued by Acharya Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi (1870-1938), Ayodhya Singh Upadhyaya ‘Hariaudha’ (1865-1946), Makhan Lal Chaturvedi, Balkrishna ‘Navin’ and Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’.

However, overemphasis of these poets on moral aspects resulted in a reaction which found expression in theChayavada of Jaya Shankar Prasad. Prasad’s Kamayani is an epic portraying the eternal struggle of the human soul against the background of the modern age. Surya Kant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Sumitra Nandan Pant and Mahadevi Verma etc., were some of the other exponents of Chayavada. Post Chayavad, modern Hindi poetry has been diversified into many newer areas.

The first original Hindi drama in the real sense was Nahua Nataka (1857), written by Gopal Chandra, father of Bhartendu Harish Chandra. However, the Hindi drama owes its beginning to Bhartendu, who by effecting a compromise between the techniques of the Sanskrit and the western Drama, produced the modern Hindi play and brought it to stage under his own direction. Some of the popular dramas written by him are-the Andher-nagari, Bharat-durdasha, Satya Harishchandra etc. Jayashankar Prasad also wrote some ever-popular dramas e.g., theChandragupta, Dhruvswamini ,Skandagupta,etc. Mohan Rakesh’s Aadhe-Adhure, Ashadha Ka Ek Din and Lehron Ke Rajhans are regarded as highly reputed plays. Modern Hindi novel is also a product of modern age. Munshi Prechand (1880-1936) wrote a number of novels which were inspired by the socio-political ideas of western masters like Leo Tolstoy and Charles Dickens. The Godan, Gaban, Rangabhumi, Nirmala and Sewasadan are some of the novels written by Premchand. Newer forms of novels have developed in the present times, boasting of such names as Jainendra, Yashpal, Shri Lal Shukla etc.

Literary criticism is yet another form of modern Hindi prose which has evolved only recently. Acharya Ramchandra Shukla, Acharya Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Nand Dulare Vajapaye, Ram Vilash Sharma, Dr. Nagendra, Dr. Namwar Singh etc., are some of the leading literary critics of modern Hindi literature.

ix. Kashmiri

Literary activities in Kashmiri vernacular started not earlier than the fourteenth century A.D. However, it is from the eighteenth century A.D. that one may note a continual spurt in all major forms of writings, viz., religious and secular poetry and prose – drama, novel, literary criticism, short story etc.

One of the most famous literary figures in Kashmiri, during the early period, was Lal Ded, the woman saint poet of the fourteenth century Kashmir, who is regarded as the second Rabia. [The first was Rabi al Adawiya (d. A.D 801) of Basra, who is regarded as the first woman mystic in the Islamic tradition.] Lal Ded is placed first in time amongst Kashmiri poets and is also considered the maker of modern Kashmiri language and literature. She composed a number of verses or Vakhs. The Vakh is a four line stanza, complete in itself. Her Vakh helped make Kashmiri an adequate vehicle for the expression of philosophical thought. She adapted Sanskritik forms of words to the use of Kashmiri, coining new words in the process. Her poetry pervades the countryside even today.

Kashmiri literature rapidly developed in the 19^th century. New and valued forms of poetry multiplied in quantity. Parmananda, Prakash Rama and Krishna Razdan are some of the important poets of this age. Parmanada wrote allegorical narratives on Hindu religious themes. Radhasyayamvara, Sudamacharita and Sivalayah are some of his important works. Prakash Rama composed the Kashmiri version of the Ramayana. Krishna Razdan composed popular devotional songs in the tunes of rural folk songs and ballads. Some of the prominent Muslim poets of this age were Mahmud Gami, Rasul Mir, Wahhab Paru etc. Among Gami’s chief works, are Yusuf-Zulekha, Khushrau-Sirin and Laila Majnu. Wahhab Paru translated the Shah Nama of Firdausi. J.H. Knowles rendered in English a collection of Kashmiri folk-tales and proverbs. The close of the 19^th century was also marked by progress in song and ghazal and witnessed the birth of a distinctive type of comic-satiric ballad called Lodi-Shah.

The early 20^th century witnessed the forceful impact of new inferences from several quarters-the growth of Indian nationalism, knowledge of western thought and literature, new developments in the literature of other north Indian regions, etc. Ghulam Ahmad Mohzur (1885-1952) was the first poet of note, whose poems embodied many of these influences. He was followed by Abdul Azad (1905-1948), who composed poems with the socialistic bias. Other well known poets of the present times are Daya Ram Ganju, ZInda Kaul and Ghulam Hasan Beg ‘Arif.’ New literary forms such as drama, novel and short story have developed and are registering a steady progress.

5. South Indian Vernacular Literature

In this category, we shall outline the major literary trends, texts and forms along with major poets, writers, dramatist etc. in Kannada, Telegu and Malayalam vernaculars.

i. Kannada

The early Kannada literature was dominated by Jain writers. Srivardhadeva and Syamkundacharya were prominent composers of this period. Srivardhadeva wrote Chudamani, a commentary on Join Our Telegram Channel